Howard Wainer

The validity of test scores relies on tests being taken under the conditions assumed by the test developers. One prominent threat to validity is the occurrence of cheating, which can take many forms. Four of them are the following:

• Impersonation – the person whose name is on the test was not the one taking it
• Collaboration – when the examinee is aided, perhaps unwittingly, by others
• Post-administration modification of answers or score
• Advance information about the content of the exam

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